We describe how ordinary interpretations of causal models and causal graphs fail to capture important distinctions among ignorable allocation mechanisms for subject selection or allocation. We ...

Recent clinical trials in oncology have used increasingly complex methodologies, such as causal inference methods for intercurrent events, external control, and covariate adjustment, posing challenges ...

We present results that allow the researcher in certain cases to determine the direction of the bias that arises when control for confounding is inadequate. The results are given within the context of ...